Sentence Structure: Some Fatal Flaws

To understand the errors that can be made, one must understand sentences, in particular: sentence elements, types and structure. Once a writer learns the grammatically correct way to construct a sentence, they will easily recognise the common errors such as sentence run-ons, fragments and dangling participles.

The first type of sentence - and the most important as it is the building block for the other types - is the simple sentence. A simple sentence, also referred to as an independent clause, contains three elements: a subject (simple or compound), a verb (simple or compound) and a predicate (sometimes known as an object). It also expresses a complete thought.

Here are some examples:

            Subject         Verb               Predicate

            I                       am                  at home.

            We                  flew                 a kite.

            She                 laughed         at me.

            Karen             juggles           two jobs.

The second type of sentence is the compound sentence. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses (or two simple sentences) joined by a co-ordinating conjunction. A co-ordinating conjunction should be one of these seven words: and, but, for, or, nor, so and yet. Except for very short sentences, a comma always precedes co-ordinating conjunctions. Depending on which co-ordinating conjunction is used, the overall meaning of the sentence may change.

For example:

Subject          Verb        Predicate      Conjunction        Subject      Verb        Predicate

Frances   chased  after the ball, but            he        fell over     a log.

I               tried       painting,        and        my friend   tried      pottery.

She         played      guitar,          so             Phillip       went    cycling.

She         played      guitar,          for            Phillip       went     cycling.

Note in the last two examples, that by using a different co-ordinating conjunction, the sequence of events (the cause/effect) portrayed by the clauses changes. In the first instance, Phillip went cycling because of the first clause. In the second instance, she played the guitar because of the second clause. You should be aware that your choice of conjunction might change how a reader interprets your sentence.

The third, and final type of sentence, is the complex sentence. A complex sentence is formed by joining an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses (which can also include an adjective clause). A complex sentence always uses a subordinating conjunction to link the clauses. These are: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether and while.

When a complex sentence begins with a subordinating conjunction, a comma is required at the end of the dependent clause.

For example:

            When he handed in his report, he forgot to give his boss the last page.

When the independent clause starts the sentence, and the subordinating conjunction appears in the middle of the sentence, a comma is not required.

For example:

            Susan returned her purchase after she noticed the use-by-date.

When an adjective (dependent) clause is used, a comma is not required after the subordinating conjunction.

For example:

            The book that I read is on the shelf.

Once you can recognize and use each of the three sentence types, you will be able to spot the common errors with sentences. The most frequent error made in creating sentences is the run-on sentence, of which there are two types depending on the mistake made when a run-on sentence is written: the comma splice and the fused sentence.

A run-on sentence is a sentence that runs into another sentence. Two or more parts of a run-on sentence can stand by itself. It is important to note that neither the length of a sentence, nor the sentence type will preclude the occurrence of a run-on sentence. A run-on sentence can be remedied by inserting a conjunction or by adding punctuation.

For example:

            Helen rushed to work she was running late.

            Helen rushed to work because she was running late. - remedied by adding a conjunction.

            Helen rushed to work. She was running late. - remedied through punctuation.

A comma splice occurs when a comma is inserted in an independent clause where it is not grammatically needed, or by adding it when creating a compound sentence without using a co-ordinating or correlative conjunction as required. A comma splice in a compound sentence can be remedied in one of four ways:

• 1. Separate the independent clauses with a full stop; or
• 2. Separate the independent clauses with a semi-colon; or
• 3. Add a co-ordinating conjunction and leave the comma; or
• 4. Turn one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause and add a subordinating conjunction.

For example:

            Comma splice: I got up late this morning, I didn't have time for breakfast.

Remedies:

• 1. I got up late this morning. I didn't have time for breakfast.
• 2. I got up late this morning; I didn't have time for breakfast.
• 3. I got up late this morning, and I didn't have time for breakfast.
• 4. Since I got up late this morning, I didn't have time for breakfast.

When a comma splices an independent clause, simply remove the comma.

For example:

            Kate took her dog for a walk, around the park.

Should just be:

            Kate took her dog for a walk around the park.

A fused sentence occurs when a compound sentence contains no punctuation whatsoever to separate the two independent clauses.

For instance, the following is a fused sentence:

            The two criminals escaped the prison they fled in a stolen car.

A fused sentence is remedied in much the same way as a for a comma splice:

• 1. Separate the independent clauses with a full stop; or
• 2. Separate the independent clauses with a semi-colon; or
• 3. Add a co-ordinating conjunction and add a comma; or
• 4. Turn one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause and add a subordinating conjunction.

For example:

• 1. The two criminals escaped the prison. They fled in a stolen car.
• 2. The two criminals escaped the prison; they fled in a stolen car.
• 3. The two criminals escaped the prison, and they fled in a stolen car.
• 4. Once the two criminals escaped the prison, they fled in a stolen car.

As you have learned, an independent clause functions as a complete sentence - in that it contains a subject, verb and predicate (object) - but what about dependent clauses?

A dependant clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a verb, but has no predicate (object) and does not express a complete thought. It cannot function as a stand-alone sentence. Using a dependent clause as a stand-alone sentence is termed a sentence fragment, and should be avoided in writing. However, dependent clauses are required for the construction of complex sentences and are very handy for including additional information in a story.

Dependent clauses can also be used to stand in for nouns, adjectives and adverbs.

A noun clause acts as the subject or object of a verb, or the object of a preposition and generally answers the questions of who(m)? or what?

For example:

            I know Henry.

            I know that Henry prefers tying his shoelaces in a particular way.

An adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun, and generally answers the questions which? and what kind of?

For example:

            the green watering can

            the watering can that I used yesterday

An adverb clause takes the place of an adverb in another clause or phrase. An adverb clause generally expresses the relationships of cause, effect, space, time, and condition.

For example:

            I planted the tree here.

            I planted the tree where it would get the most sun.

A phrase is a group of two or more grammatically linked words without a subject and predicate (object). A phrase is used to add extra information to the sentence, and can act as an object, an object complement, a subject, a verb, adjective or adverb. A phrase is used as a basic building block of a clause.

For example:

            Though I went grocery shopping, I bought a dress as well.

            Lightning flashed brightly in the night sky.

            Most teenagers often think they know everything.

Does it matter how a sentence is ORDERED?

You've learned about the components of sentence, and how to put the phrases and clauses together into a grammatically correct sentence, but does it really matter how the information is sequenced?

When we write, we try to establish links in the reader's mind as quickly as possible. The context - what the reader already has in mind - determines the most effective word order.

How you wish the reader to interpret the sentence should be driving force in determining what part of the sentence you place the most important information.

When you introduce the main point of the sentence first, you are giving the reader/audience the information they require in the first instance. Everything that follows should provide the Why? of that piece of information to reinforce the importance of it in the reader's mind. This sort of sentence structure is called a loose sentence.

For example:

                Jimmy prefers to eat the chocolate ice cream rather than the vanilla, considering it is his favourite, it tastes better with the chocolate dipped cone and it is always served with a dollop of cream.

When you introduce the main emphasis of a sentence last, you effectively make a reader learn extraneous information without knowing what the conclusion will be. This form is known as a periodic sentence, and is particularly handy when writing certain genres. Used sparingly, a periodic sentence can be both dramatic and persuasive in expressing the important information.

For example:

                  Considering the distance to the store, the pouring rain and the approaching night, Tom was hesitant about going to the corner store just to buy his favourite chocolate ice cream.

Depending on the emphasis that a writer wishes a reader to note, as well as the context that the sentence belongs to, a sentence can be ordered to reflect this.

For example, suppose the reader already knows that Mary had been hard at work for hours. In that case, it would be natural to continue the story like this:

       Mary had been working for hours, but she was working in spite of feeling tired.

It would be odd and unhelpful, to mention the tiredness first.

On the other hand, if the tiredness is what the reader already knows, the reverse order is preferable:

      Mary felt exhausted after a bad night, but she was working in spite of feeling tired.

This means that what comes first tends to be information that we know already, so it is less important than what comes later.

Some things to remember:

• Information in clauses is more important than information in phrases.
• Information in main clauses is more important than that in subordinate clauses.
• Information in finite subordinate clauses is more important than that in non-finite clauses.
• Co-ordinated words, phrases or clauses are equally important

What is a dangling participle?

A dangling participle is a modifier in a sentence that does not clearly relate to noun it is supposed to modify. A modifier is a word or phrase that describes, clarifies or gives more detail about something, and is usually placed as close as possible to what is describes. Though a sentence may be punctuated correctly, readers and editors alike will identify an offending sentence as 'awkward', poorly phrased, or just plain confusing.

Here is an example of a dangling participle or modifier:

      Having been thrown into the air, Rover caught the Frisbee.

Grammatically speaking, the first noun that follows a modifier is the subject of the modifying clause. To a reader, this sentence infers that Rover was the one thrown into the air rather than the frisbee. A humorous - though illogical - preposition.

There are two ways that the above sentence may be resolved:

      When the frisbee was thrown into the air, Rover caught it.

In this first example, the modifying clause is changed into a dependant clause and the meaning of the sentence is clear.

      Rover caught the frisbee that had been thrown into the air.

In this second example, the phrase and main clause have been combined into a simple sentence.

Often, instead of a confusion between two or more nouns, a modifying clause will refer to a noun that isn't identified in the sentence. Perhaps this noun is referred to in an earlier sentence or the writer presumes that the reader will simply 'fill in the blank'.

Here is an example:

      The cupboard was empty, having packed everything into the box.

Since the only noun in this sentence - 'the cupboard' - cannot perform the action in the modifier, the above sentence is a dangling participle. To resolve this sentence, the appropriate noun must be named in the main clause.

Here are two possible revisions:

      Helen emptied the cupboard, packing everything into the box.

In this first example, the 'doer' of the action is identified in the introductory clause, and then the modifying phrase that follows clearly relates to 'Helen'.

      Helen emptied the contents of the cupboard into the box.

In this second example, the phrase and main clause are combined to form a simple sentence.

Some tips:

Check all your sentences for modifying phrases. The first noun that follows will be the one being modified. If they do not fit together logically, you have a dangling participle/modifier.

Easy ways to revise a modifier:

• Always identify the appropriate doer of an action - they will be the subject of the main clause.
• Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause by identifying the doer of that action in that clause.
• Combine the phrase and main clause into a simple sentence.